BEST PRACTICES: PERINATAL AND INFANT OHC
312 THE REFERENCE MANUAL OF PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY
Latest Revision
2021
Perinatal and Infant Oral Health Care
How to Cite: American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. Perinatal
and infant oral health care. The Reference Manual of Pediatric
Dentistry. Chicago, Ill.: American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry;
2023:312-6.
Abstract
This best practice presents recommendations regarding perinatal and infant oral health care, including caries risk assessment, anticipatory
guidance, preventive strategies, and therapeutic interventions. Oral healthcare providers play an invaluable role in optimizing the oral health
of infants, particularly through the establishment of a dental home, caries prevention, and management of common oral conditions.
Relevant oral findings including developmental cysts, pathognomonic viral and fungal lesions, cleft lip and palate, natal and neonatal
teeth, ankyloglossia, and tooth eruption are discussed. The document emphasizes the importance of dental visits during pregnancy and
highlights feeding practices and caries risk factors during infancy. Strategies for prevention of early childhood caries, including dietary
modifications and use of fluoride, are encouraged. Additional elements of anticipatory guidance addressed are oral hygiene instruction,
frequency of dental examinations, consequences of nonnutritive sucking habits, and safety practices to avoid orofacial trauma. Providers
may use this document to help frame discussions with expectant and new parents regarding essential aspects of perinatal and infant oral
health.
This document was developed through a collaborative effort of the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry Councils on Clinical Affairs and
Scientific Affairs to offer updated information and recommendations regarding perinatal and infant oral health care.
KEYWORDS: ANTICIPATORY GUIDANCE; CARIES RISK FACTORS; DENTAL HOME; INFANT ORAL HEALTH; ORAL HYGIENE INSTRUCTION; PERINATAL ORAL HEALTH
Purpose
e American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD)
recognizes that perinatal and infant oral health are the
foundations upon which preventive education and dental
care must be built to enhance the opportunity for a child to
have a lifetime free from preventable oral disease. Recognizing
that dentists, physicians, allied health professionals, and com-
munity organizations must be involved as partners to achieve
this goal, the AAPD proposes best practices for perinatal
and infant oral health care, including caries risk assessment,
anticipatory guidance, preventive strategies, and therapeutic
interventions, to be followed by the stakeholders in pediatric
oral health.
Method
Recommendations on perinatal and infant oral health care
were developed by the Infant Oral Health Subcommittee of
the Clinical Aairs Committee and adopted in 1986.
1
e
Guideline on Perinatal Oral Health Care was originally devel-
oped by the Infant Oral Health Subcommittee of the Council
on Clinical Aairs and adopted in 2009.
2
is document is
an update of the 2016 merger of those guidelines
3
utilizing a
search of the PubMed
®
/MEDLINE database with the terms:
infant oral health, infant oral health care, early childhood
caries, perinatal, perinatal oral health, and early childhood
caries prevention; elds: all; limits: within the last 10 years,
humans, English, and clinical trials. e search resulted in 261
papers that were reviewed by title and abstract. From those,
papers were selected to update this document. When data did
not appear sucient or were inconclusive, recommendations
were based upon expert and/or consensus opinion by experi-
enced researchers and clinicians.
Background
Role of oral health providers in perinatal and infant oral
health care
e perinatal period is the period beginning with the
completion of the 20
th
to 28
th
week of gestation and ending
one to four weeks after birth. e infant period extends to the
child’s rst birthday. Oral health providers have an important
role in perinatal and infant oral health care, particularly
regarding the establishment of a dental home,
4
educating
new parents, and the timing of a child’s rst dental visit. Oral
health providers need to be knowledgeable regarding the
perinatal period and rst year of a child’s life with respect
to common oral conditions, anticipatory guidance, and early
dental caries preventive care including oral cleaning, dietary
recommendations, and optimal uoride exposure.
Common oral conditions in newborns and infants
Bohn nodules are small developmental anomalies located along
the buccal and lingual aspects of the mandibular and maxillary
ABBREVIATIONS
AAPD: American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. ECC: Early child-
hood caries. FDA: U.S. Food and Drug Administration. MS: Mutans
streptococci. U.S.: United States.
BEST PRACTICES: PERINATAL AND INFANT OHC
THE REFERENCE MANUAL OF PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY 313
ridges and in the hard palate of the neonate. ese lesions arise
from remnants of mucous gland tissue. Dental lamina cysts
may be found along the crest of the mandibular and maxillary
ridges of neonates. ese lesions arise from epithelial remnants
of the dental lamina. Epstein pearls are keratin-lled cysts
found in the mid-palatal raphe at the junction of the hard and
soft palates. ese three developmental remnants generally
disappear shortly after birth, and no treatment is necessary.
5
Fordyce granules are very common aberrant yellow-white
sebaceous glands most commonly on the buccal mucosa or
lips. No management is needed as these lesions are inconse-
quential and resolve on their own.
5
Ankyloglossia is charac-
terized by an abnormally short lingual frenum that can hinder
the tongue movement and may interfere with feeding or speech.
e frenum might spontaneously lengthen as the child gets
older. Surgical correction, on an individual basis, may be
indicated for functional limitations and symptomatic relief.
6
Oropharyngeal candidiasis appears as white plaques
covering the oropharyngeal mucosa which, if removed, leaves
an inamed underlying surface. Candidiasis is usually self-
limiting in the healthy newborn infant, but topical application
of nystatin to the oral cavity of the baby and to the nipples
of breast-feeding mothers may have benet.
5
Primary herpetic
gingivostomatitis presents with oral features such as
erythematous gingiva, mucosal hemorrhages, and clusters
of small vesicles throughout the mouth. Somatic signs may
include fever, malaise, lymphadenopathy, and diculty with
eating and drinking. Usually, symptoms regress within two
weeks, and lesions heal without scarring.
5
Fluids should be
encouraged to prevent dehydration, and analgesics may make
the child more comfortable.
5
Oral acyclovir may be benecial
in shortening the duration of symptoms.
7
Caution by practi-
tioners and parents is necessary to prevent autoinoculation or
transmission of infection to the eyes, other body parts, and
other individuals. Other less common viral conditions with
oral symptoms in infants are herpangina and hand-foot-mouth
disease.
5
e prevalence of cleft lip with or without cleft palate
in 2004-2006 was 10.6 per 10,000 live births in the United
States (U.S.) and for cleft palate alone was 6.4 per 10,000 live
births in the U.S.
8
Cleft lip may vary from a small notch in
the vermilion border to a complete separation involving skin,
muscle, mucosa, dentition, and bone. Clefts may be unilateral
or bilateral and may involve the alveolar ridge. Isolated cleft
palate occurs in the midline and may involve only the uvula
or may extend into or through the soft and hard palates to
the incisive foramen. Rehabilitation for the child with a cleft
lip or palate may require years of specialized treatment by a
cleft lip/palate team. Surgical closure of a cleft lip usually is
performed around three months of age; closure of the palate
usually occurs around one year.
5
Dental eruption (teething)
Natal teeth are present at birth, whereas neonatal teeth erupt
in the rst month of life. Attachment of natal and neonatal
teeth generally is limited to the gingival margin due to little
root formation or bony support. ese teeth may be a super-
numerary or prematurely erupted primary tooth. Natal or
neonatal teeth occasionally result in pain and refusal to feed
and can produce maternal discomfort because of abrasion or
biting of the nipple during nursing. Ulceration, bleeding, and
discomfort of the tongue due to its repetitive rubbing across
a natal tooth during swallowing and movement is called
Riga-Fede disease.
5
If the tooth is mobile with a danger of
detachment and aspiration, extraction may be warranted.
Decisions regarding extraction of prematurely erupted primary
teeth and smoothing the incisal edge should be made on an
individual basis.
Eruption of teeth (teething) can lead to intermittent
localized discomfort, irritability, low-grade fever, and excessive
salivation; however, many children have no apparent di-
culties. Treatment of symptoms includes oral analgesics and
teething rings for the child to ‘gum’.
5
Use of topical anesthetic
or homeopathic remedies to relieve discomfort should be
avoided due to potential harm of these products in infants.
Because of the risk of methemoglobinemia, benzocaine use is
contraindicated in children younger than two years of age.
9
Pregnancy and the perinatal period
e perinatal period plays a crucial role for the well-being
of pregnant women and the health and well-being of their
newborn children.
10
Mothers’ poor oral health is associated
with poor oral health of their ospring.
11
Yet, many women
do not seek dental care during their pregnancy, and those
who do often confront unwillingness of dentists to provide
care.
12
A systematic review has shown the ecacy of prenatal
dental education and preventive therapies in reducing Mutans
streptococci (MS) in children.
13
Physicians, nurses, and other
health care professionals, when aware of the risk factors for
dental caries, can help new parents make appropriate decisions
regarding timely and eective oral health interventions for
their newborns.
14
Some medications may pose a risk to infants during the
perinatal period, lactating mothers, and women and men
of reproductive potential. Current U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) recommendations can assist health
care providers when using in-oce, prescribed, and over-the-
counter medications for these individuals.
15
While in 2020
the FDA recommended that dental amalgam should be
avoided in pregnant women, women planning to become
pregnant, women who are nursing, and children under the age
of six
16
, it is important to emphasize that dental visits during
pregnancy are safe, eective, and should be encouraged
17
.
Newborns and infants frequently have non-nutritive
habits, such as digit sucking or using a pacier. Prolonged
digit sucking can cause aring of the maxillary incisor teeth,
an open bite, and a posterior crossbite.
18
However, there
should be little concern about the eects of such oral habit
during infancy.
BEST PRACTICES: PERINATAL AND INFANT OHC
314 THE REFERENCE MANUAL OF PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY
Diet for newborns and infants
Benets of breastfeeding in a child’s rst year of life are clear
19
;
however, breastfeeding and baby bottle beyond 12 months,
especially if frequent and/or nocturnal, are associated with
early childhood caries (ECC)
20
. Allowing a child to drink from
a bottle, transportable covered cup, open cup, or box of juice
throughout the day may be harmful.
21
Importantly, frequent
consumption of free sugars (i.e., sugars added to food and
beverages and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit
juices and fruit juice concentrates) promotes the carious pro-
cess.
22
Cohort studies provide evidence that two key charac-
teristics of perinatal/infant dietary practices are critical to
prevent dental caries: the age at which sugar is introduced
to a child and the frequency of its consumption.
23,24
e
American Heart Association rec-ommends that sugar in foods
and drink be avoided by children under two years.
25
Addi-
tionally, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends
that 100 percent fruit juice not be introduced before 12
months of age and be limited to no more than four ounces
a day for children between the ages of one and three years.
21
Dental caries risk in newborns and infants
ECC is dened as the presence of one or more decayed
(noncavitated or cavitated lesions), missing or lled (due
to caries) surfaces, in any primary tooth of a child under
six years of age.
26
ECC, like other forms of caries, is a
bacterial-mediated, sugar-driven, multifactorial, dynamic
disease that results in the phasic demineralization and
remineralization of dental hard tissues.
27
Traditional microbial
risk markers for ECC include acidogenic-aciduric bacterial
species, namely MS and Lactobacillus species.
28
MS may be
transmitted vertically from caregiver to child through salivary
contact, aected by the frequency and amount of exposure.
29
Horizontal transmission (e.g., between other members of a
family or children in daycare) also occurs.
30
Dental caries in
primary teeth may lead to chronic pain, infections, and other
morbidities. ECC has major impact on the quality of life of
children and their families and is an unnecessary health and
nancial burden to society.
27
Prevention for ECC needs to begin in infancy. Physicians,
nurses, and other health care workers may have more
opportunities to educate the parent/caregiver than dental
professionals because of the frequency of contact with the
family in the child’s rst year of life.
31
erefore, they need
to be aware of caries risk and protective factors and use this
information to promote primary care preventive messages that
include: limiting sugar intake in foods and drink; avoiding
night-time bottle feeding with milk or drinks containing
sugars; avoiding baby bottle usage and breastfeeding beyond
12 months, especially if frequent and/or nocturnal; and
having the child’s teeth brushed twice daily with a smear of
uoridated toothpaste.
32
Additionally, for children who are
at high risk for dental caries, professionally-applied uoride
varnish and dietary uoride supplements (for infants living
in nonuoridated areas) may be part of an individualized
preventive plan.
33
However, a growing number of caregivers
are hesitant about professionally-applied topical uorides.
34
Fluoride hesitancy mirrors vaccination hesitancy observed in
pediatric medicine.
35
Inaccurate information about uoride
may be shared among caregivers within online social
networks.
36
Anticipatory guidance
Anticipatory guidance in the perinatal and infant period
includes assessment of any growth and development consid-
erations that the parents should be aware of or that need
referral to the child’s medical provider.
37
Assessment of caries
risk should be considered when counselling the parents
regarding the child’s uoride exposure which includes con-
suming optimally-uoridated water, frequency of brushing
with the appropriate quantity of uoridated toothpaste, and
need for professional topical uoride applications.
38
Anticipatory
guidance during this infant period also entails oral hygiene
instruction, dietary counselling regarding sugar consumption,
frequency of periodic oral examinations
37
, and information
regarding nonnutritive habits that, if prolonged, may result
in aring of the maxillary incisor teeth, an open bite, and a
posterior crossbite.
18
Counselling regarding safety and pre-
vention of orofacial trauma would include discussions of play
objects, paciers, car seats, electrical cords, and injuries due
to falls when learning to walk.
Recommendations
1. Advise expecting and new parents regarding the
importance of their own oral health and the possi-
ble transmission of cariogenic bacteria from parent/
primary caregiver to the infant.
2. Encourage establishment of a dental home that in-
cludes medical history, dental examination, risk
assessment, and anticipatory guidance for infants by
12 months of age.
3. Provide caries preventive information regarding: high
frequency sugar consumption; brushing twice daily
with an optimal amount fluoridated toothpaste;
safety and efficacy of optimally-fluoridated commu-
nity water; and, for children at risk for dental caries,
fluoride varnish and dietary fluoride supplements
(if not consuming optimally-uoridated water).
4. Assess caries risk to facilitate the appropriate preventive
strategies as the primary dentition begins to erupt.
5. Provide information to parents regarding common
oral conditions in newborns and infants, nonnutritive
oral habits (e.g., digit sucking, use of a pacifier),
teething (including use of analgesics and avoidance
of topical anesthetics), growth and development, and
orofacial trauma (including play objects, paciers, car
seats, electric cords, and falls when learning to walk).
6. When ankyloglossia results in functional limitations
or causes symptoms, the need to surgical intervention
should be assessed on an individual basis.
BEST PRACTICES: PERINATAL AND INFANT OHC
THE REFERENCE MANUAL OF PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY 315
References continued on next page.
7. When a patient presents with a prematurely erupted
primary tooth (i.e., natal or neonatal tooth), decisions
regarding intervention should be individualized, based
on the interference with feeding, the risk of detach-
ment and aspiration, and any medical or contributing
considerations.
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